New York has passed a law that limits when employers may review or use an individual’s credit history when making employment decisions. In most cases, the law prohibits employers from checking credit reports or credit scoreswhen hiring, setting pay, promoting, or making other employment decisions. The law aims to promote fairness in the workplace by preventing the use of financial history as criteria for hiring or promotion. New York now joins other states that have similar protections.

1. When does the law take effect?

The law goes into effect on April 18, 2026, which is 120 days after it was signed by the Governor in December 2025.

2. Who must follow this rule?

Most employers in all of New York State have to follow this rule. It also applies to employment agencies, labor organizations, and any individual or entity acting on behalf of an employer.

3. What counts as “credit history”?

Credit history includes things like:

• Credit report or credit score
• Details on credit accounts, debts, late payments, collections
• Bankruptcies, judgments, liens

The restriction applies regardless of whether the information comes from a credit reporting agency or is provided directly by an applicant or employee.

4. What are employers not allowed to do?

Employers cannot:

• Ask for or get credit reports or credit history for employment reasons
• Use credit history information to make decisions about hiring, pay, promotions, or other terms of employment

This applies to both job applicants and current employees.

5. Are there situations where employers can use credit history?

Yes. There are exceptions, including when a law or regulation already requires credit checks. For example:

• Jobs regulated by laws that require credit checks (i.e. financial industry roles regulated by federal law)
• Peace officers or law enforcement jobs
• Positions with high public trust or security clearance
• Jobs that handle large amounts of money, trade secrets, or sensitive systems

Can credit reporting agencies still share credit information with employers?

No. The law prohibits employers from seeking credit information and prohibits background check and consumer reporting agencies from providing it, except in limited circumstances permitted by law.

6. What does this mean for job applicants and employees?

It means that starting April 18, 2026:

• Employers should not check or review credit history or consider it in employment decisions
• Background check companies and consumer reporting agencies cannot provide credit information to employers unless a specific exception applies
• Credit scores, debt levels, or past financial issues should not affect hiring, pay, promotions, or fair treatment in the workplace unless a specific exception applies

What should employers keep in mind?

Employers will need to:

• Update hiring and HR policies so they don’t request credit history (unless exempt)
• Train HR staff to comply with the new rule
• Review contracts with screening companies to make sure they don’t provide forbidden credit information

Failing to comply could lead to legal trouble under the state’s anti-discrimination rules.

CWI resources are for employers, employees, and jobseekers. They are only provided for general informational purposes and are not a substitute for legal advice.

CBG: What Is It and What Does It Do?
In this post, I’m going to continue talking about my favorite cannabinoid, CBGA. We discussed previously about CBGA being the mother cannabinoid. Today, we’ll look at what it is, what it does, and how it might be used for medicine. 

What is CBG?
CBG stands for cannabigerol. It’s a type of cannabinoid found in the cannabis plant (Cannabis sativa L.).
It’s not psychoactive, which means it won’t make you feel high. CBG is usually found in smaller amounts than THC or CBD [1], but it may have very helpful health benefits.

Where is CBG found?
CBG is made in the sticky resin glands (called trichomes) on the surface of the cannabis plant—mostly on the flowers of the female plant. All the other cannabinoids are made in these glands, which are basically a factory of cannabinoids (and other compounds)
CBG comes from a compound called CBGA, which is the starting point for all the other cannabinoids in the plant. That’s why people call CBGA the “mother cannabinoid”, and you can read more about it in this previous post.  From CBGA, which is the precursor molecule, the plant also makes THCA, CBDA, and CBCA.

When was CBG discovered?
CBG was first described in 1964 by researchers Gaoni and Mechoulam [2]. But for many years, most research has been focused on THC and CBD. Now, more attention is being given to this lesser-known but really interesting cannabinoid.

Some CBG facts
The cannabis plant (Cannabis sativa) makes all of its cannabinoids in an “acidic” form. You can tell because their names end with the letter “A,” like CBGA, THCA, and CBDA.
CBG (cannabigerol) is the “neutral” form that comes from CBGA (cannabigerolic acid) after it’s heated. This happens through a chemical reaction called decarboxylation, where the compound loses a small piece called a carboxyl group.

What’s the Difference Between CBD and CBG?
CBD (cannabidiol) and CBG (cannabigerol) are two of many cannabinoids found in the cannabis plant. They are similar in some ways, but they also have big differences in how they’re built and how they affect the body (figure 1).

Both CBD and CBG work with your body’s endocannabinoid system.
One key difference is that CBD has a more complex ring structure than CBG, and this small change makes them act differently in the body [3].
CBD has been studied a lot more and is approved for some medical uses. CBG still needs more research before we fully understand what it can do.

Figure 1. Chemical structure of CBGA (Cannabigerolic acid), CBG (Cannabigerol), CBDA (Cannabidiolic acid), and CBD (Cannabidiol). 

Why Is CBGA Called the Mother Cannabinoid?
CBGA is known as the “mother” of all cannabinoids. That’s one of the reasons I like it, because it reminds me of the wonderful job of being a mom.
When the cannabis plant makes cannabinoids, it starts with CBGA. Then, enzymes called THCA synthase, CBDA synthase, and CBCA synthase turn CBGA into THCA, CBDA, and CBCA.
That makes CBGA the starting point or “precursor” of these three cannabinoids.. In lab settings, CBGA can lead to up to eight different cannabinoids. In our previous post we mentioned why are these synthases the party enzymes (promiscuous and sloppy), so check it out!

Does CBG Have Medical Benefits?
As we mentioned in that previous post, CBG and CBGA may have therapeutical benefits: by having neuroprotective effects on the brain [4], having anticancer properties and helping fight the illness [5], and useful treating epilepsy [6]

However, CBG (cannabigerol) hasn’t been studied as much as THC or CBD, which have been more popular for a longer. A few clinical trials are currently being done or have been finished recently to see if CBG might help with certain health problems:

• A study to see how CBG affects the mental, physical, and emotional wellness of healthy people (https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT05743985)
• A study testing how CBG impacts anxiety, stress, and thinking (https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT05257044)
• A study looking at whether CBG can improve sleep quality in veterans (https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT05088018)
• A study testing cannabis oil with both CBD and CBG in people with ADHD (https://www.clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT05219370)

Does CBG Have Cosmetic Uses?
Yes! In Europe, CBG is approved as a cosmetic ingredient. It’s on the official CosIng list (a list of allowed cosmetic ingredients), along with other cannabinoids like CBD and CBN.

How Do People Use CBG?
Right now, there is no official dose of CBG for taking it by mouth because we still don’t have enough research or clear rules. We also don’t know how it might interact with other medications. Since there’s not much information yet about how well CBG works or how safe it is, it might not be the best or first option for treatment at this time.

CBG Oil
CBG oil is in a “gray area” when it comes to the law. Because CBG doesn’t cause a high like THC, it’s not considered a drug. However, there aren’t clear rules yet about using it internally (like swallowing it).

That’s why most CBG oils are only sold for external use, like in skin care products.

If you use full-spectrum cannabis oil, it probably has small amounts of other cannabinoids in it too—including CBG.

CBG Power

CBG is a cannabinoid with exciting medical possibilities, but we still have a lot to learn about it.

As an evolutionary biologist, what I love most about CBG is how it works at the biochemical level, and its gene structure.  This “mother cannabinoid” helps make many different proteins and is key to producing other cannabinoids during the plant’s natural process. You can read more about this in our previous post.

I hope I’ve shown you why CBG is my favorite: it’s cool, important, and full of potential. Until next time!

1. Smith, C.J., et al., The phytochemical diversity of commercial cannabis in the United States. PLoS one, 2022. 17(5): p. e0267498.

2. Gaoni, Y. and R. Mechoulam, The isolation and structure of cannabinolic cannabidiolic and cannabigerolic acids. J Am Chem Soc, 1964. 86: p. 1646-1647.

3. Navarro, G., et al., Cannabigerol action at cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors and at CB1–CB2 heteroreceptor complexes. Frontiers in pharmacology, 2018. 9: p. 632.

4. Valdeolivas, S., et al., Neuroprotective properties of cannabigerol in Huntington’s disease: studies in R6/2 mice and 3-nitropropionate-lesioned mice. Neurotherapeutics, 2015. 12(1): p. 185-199.

5. Borrelli, F., et al., Colon carcinogenesis is inhibited by the TRPM8 antagonist cannabigerol, a Cannabis-derived non-psychotropic cannabinoid. Carcinogenesis, 2014: p. bgu205.

6. Anderson, L.L., et al., Cannabigerolic acid, a major biosynthetic precursor molecule in cannabis, exhibits divergent effects on seizures in mouse models of epilepsy. British journal of pharmacology, 2021. 178(24): p. 4826-4841.

In this post, I’m going to tell you about my favorite cannabinoid, CBGA, and explain why it’s my top pick.

The Cannabinoid Biochemical Pathway
The biochemical process responsible for forming the cannabinoids we know, such as CBDA (cannabidiolic acid), THCA (tetrahydrocannabinolic acid), and CBCA (cannabichromenic acid), is a complex and lengthy one. Early in this pathway, it connects with the same metabolic route that produces terpenes, which are some of the compounds that give plants their smell.

As we mentioned in another article, the Cannabis sativa plant makes these cannabinoids in their acidic form. When you heat them, a chemical process called decarboxylation happens, which changes them into their neutral form [1]. This means the cannabinoids lose a carboxyl group (COOH), and turn into CBD (cannabidiol), THC (tetrahydrocannabinol), and CBC (cannabichromene) as we discussed in a previous post.

These neutral forms of cannabinoids interact more strongly with our body’s endocannabinoid system [2]. That’s why we smoke, vape, or cook cannabis—to activate the cannabinoids through heat.

An enzyme is a special kind of protein made by living things that helps speed up chemical reactions. You can think of an enzyme like a helper or a tiny machine that makes things happen faster—like breaking down food or building important molecules. There are many enzymes involved in the cannabinoid pathway, for example THCA Synthase which makes THCA, CBDA Synthase which makes CBDA, and CBCA Synthase which makes CBCA (Figure 1)

The marijuana plant makes cannabinoids in their acidic form. When heated, they change into their neutral form through a process called decarboxylation, where they lose a carboxyl group (COOH). This decarboxylation happens outside of the plant. In other words, the plant makes the acidic compounds, and heating them turns them into their neutral form. This is why in Figure 1 this step is called a “non-enzymatic conversion” because in this step these synthases are not needed. Figure 1 shows the last two steps of a much longer process that happens inside the plant.

_{Figure 1. Final steps of the metabolic pathway that produces well-known cannabinoids like THCA and CBDA. The enzyme CBGA synthase turns geranyl diphosphate into cannabigerolic acid (CBGA), which is the “mother” molecule used by the enzymes THCA synthase, CBDA synthase, and CBCA synthase to make THCA, CBDA, and CBCA. When heated, these three compounds—and CBGA itself—go through decarboxylation and change into their neutral forms: THC, CBD, CBC, and CBG. This decarboxylation step happens outside of the plant, which is why its called a “non-enzymatic conversion.” Figure modified from references [3-6]}

Promiscuous and Sloppy: The Party Enzymes!

In Figure 1, you can see that there are many enzymes involved and the ones mentioned here are called synthases because they help make certain compounds.

One important enzyme is CBGA synthase. It turns a basic building block called geranyl diphosphate into CBGA (cannabigerolic acid), which is the starting point for making many cannabinoids.

Then we have THCA synthase, CBDA synthase, and CBCA synthase—enzymes that turn CBGA into THCA, CBDA, and CBCA. These are known as cannabinoid oxidocyclases. The term “cannabinoid oxidocyclases” (which I love!) comes from a 2021 paper by van Velzen and Schranz [7]. I recommend checking it out. Another day, when we dive deeper into biochemistry, I’ll explain why they’re adopting this term “oxidocyclases”, which I consider very appropriate.

Even though enzymes are usually somewhat specific (perhaps you have heard of a key that only fits one lock), these ones are not. Each of these enzymes can actually make up to eight different compounds, not just the one they’re named after [8]. For example, THCA synthase can also make CBDA and CBCA. Because they’re not very precise, they are called sloppy enzymes. The sloppiest one might be the CBCA synthase, but we’ll save that story for later.

Since all three enzymes work on the same starting molecule (CBGA), and each one can make more than just one product, they are also considered promiscuous—that just means they have many possible “partners” in a reaction.

So basically, these enzymes are out there partying, mixing it up, and making all kinds of different compounds.

Do Hemp Rules Really Make Sense?

It’s very likely that the people who created the laws about hemp and marijuana didn’t know how these enzymes in the plant actually work, and that many enzymes can make a single compound (as we mentioned above these enzymes are sloppy and promiscuous). If they had known, maybe they wouldn’t have set the THC limit so low at 0.3%, or maybe they wouldn’t have set a limit at all. This lack of understanding about the plant’s biology and chemistry has caused problems for growers, producers, and breeders. Does this 0.3% THC rule actually make sense based on what we now know about the plant?

The Mother Cannabinoid

CBGA is often called the “mother cannabinoid” because it’s the starting point for several other cannabinoids. As shown in Figure 1 and mentioned earlier, the enzymes THCA synthase, CBDA synthase, and CBCA synthase all act on CBGA to form THCA, CBDA, and CBCA. Since all three depend on CBGA to form these important compounds (and possibly others), is often called the “mother cannabinoid”.  That’s one reason I really like CBGA—because as a mom myself, I relate to its central, nurturing role.

What Makes the Mother Cannabinoid’s Gene So Interesting

Something that fascinates me about the gene for CBGA synthase is how it’s built. This gene has a lot of exons and introns [9]. Exons are the parts of a gene that contain the instructions to make proteins. Introns are also part of the gene, but they don’t code for proteins. When a protein is made, only the exons are used.

What’s interesting here is that some of the introns in this gene are really big—up to 11,000 base pairs (those are the letters that make up DNA). While introns this big have been seen before, it’s not very common. Also, this gene has many introns—nine, ten, even eleven in some cases! That means it’s made up of lots of separate pieces. The gene for CBGA synthase also has many exons, which are the parts used to make proteins. Having more of them could allow the gene to make different versions of proteins.

This is another reason I like CBGA so much. Even though more research is needed to confirm this idea, it’s possible that the gene can make different protein structures, making it flexible, generous, and adaptable. Just like many moms are.

Possible Therapeutic Uses of CBG

As shown in Figure 1, the plant makes CBGA in its acidic form, called cannabigerolic acid. When it’s heated, just like THCA or CBDA, it goes through decarboxylation and turns into CBG (cannabigerol).

Like other cannabinoids, CBGA and CBG may have therapeutic benefits, but more research is needed to understand how well they work.

So far, studies suggest that CBGA and CBG might:

• Protect the brain -neuroprotective effects- [10]
• Help fight cancer -anticancer properties [11]
• Be useful in treating epilepsy [12]

However, many of these studies have only been done in mice, so more research is needed in humans.

I hope I’ve convinced you that the mother cannabinoid is the coolest of them all! CBGA is an amazing example of an important and helpful cannabinoid. It may have medical uses, could possibly form different kinds of proteins, and it’s essential for making the other major cannabinoids in the plant.

References

1. Hart, C.L., et al., Effects of acute smoked marijuana on complex cognitive performance. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2001. 25(5): p. 757-765.
2. Gertsch, J., et al., Beta-caryophyllene is a dietary cannabinoid. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2008. 105(26): p. 9099-9104.
3. Page, J.E. and J.M. Stout, Cannabichromenic acid synthase from Cannabis sativa. 2017, Google Patents.
4. Vergara, D., et al., Gene copy number is associated with phytochemistry in Cannabis sativa. AoB PLANTS, 2019. 11(6): p. plz074.
5. Gülck, T. and B.L. Møller, Phytocannabinoids: origins and biosynthesis. Trends in plant science, 2020. 25(10): p. 985-1004.
6. Innes, P.A. and D. Vergara, Genomic description of critical upstream cannabinoid biosynthesis genes. bioRxiv, 2022: p. 2022.12. 15.520586.
7. van Velzen, R. and M.E. Schranz, Origin and evolution of the cannabinoid oxidocyclase gene family. Genome Biology and Evolution, 2021. 13(8): p. evab130.
8. Zirpel, B., O. Kayser, and F. Stehle, Elucidation of structure-function relationship of THCA and CBDA synthase from Cannabis sativa L. Journal of biotechnology, 2018. 284: p. 17-26.
9. Innes, P.A. and D. Vergara, Genomic description of critical cannabinoid biosynthesis genes. Botany, 2023.
10. Valdeolivas, S., et al., Neuroprotective properties of cannabigerol in Huntington’s disease: studies in R6/2 mice and 3-nitropropionate-lesioned mice. Neurotherapeutics, 2015. 12(1): p. 185-199.
11. Borrelli, F., et al., Colon carcinogenesis is inhibited by the TRPM8 antagonist cannabigerol, a Cannabis-derived non-psychotropic cannabinoid. Carcinogenesis, 2014: p. bgu205.
12. Anderson, L.L., et al., Cannabigerolic acid, a major biosynthetic precursor molecule in cannabis, exhibits divergent effects on seizures in mouse models of epilepsy. British journal of pharmacology, 2021. 178(24): p. 4826-4841.

A Certificate of Analysis (COA) is like a report card for your cannabis product. It tells you what’s in the product and whether it passed safety tests. Every legal cannabis product sold in New York must have a COA, which you can usually find by scanning the QR code on the product label. Understanding a COA helps you stay safe, informed, and get the effects you’re looking for.

New York State requires cannabis products to go through lab testing to help keep people safe. This testing makes sure that the products sold at licensed dispensaries meet safety standards. It also gives buyers important details about what’s in the product.

Lab tests check for:

• THC, CBD, and other cannabinoids
• Germs like bacteria and mold
• Harmful metals (like lead or mercury)
• Pesticides (chemicals used to kill bugs)
• Solvents left over from extraction
• Moisture levels (water activity)
• Dirt, hair, or other unwanted materials
• Other possible contaminants

Although this post will help anyone anywhere read a COA for marijuana-type C. sativa, we are focusing on New York State.

Header Information

This section is usually at the top of the Certificate of Analysis (COA) and helps you verify the product’s identity and history.

Look for these details:

• Lab Name & Address: Shows which certified lab did the testing. Labs must be licensed by the state.
• Organization Name & License Number: This tells you the business that made the cannabis product and their official New York State license number.
• Product Name: The name of the product, such as a specific strain or brand.
• Sample Name: Describes the cannabis product being tested.
• Sample Type: Tells you the final form of the product (like flower, pre-roll, lozenge, edible, etc.).
• Lot Number or Unique Identifier: A special code that allows the state to trace the full history of the product—from where it was grown to where it was sold. This is also used to recall products if there’s a problem.
• Batch/Sample ID: A specific code that identifies the exact sample tested in the lab.
• Collection Date: The day the lab collected the sample from the producer.
• Received Date: The day the lab received the product for testing.
• Reported Date: The day the final results were shared with the producer.
• Report Status: Tells you whether the testing is finished or still in progress.

These details make sure the lab results match the product you’re buying and help track the product for safety and quality control.

Cannabinoid Profile

This part of the COA tells you how much of each cannabinoid is in your product. These cannabinoids, as we discussed in a previous post, are compounds made by the cannabis plant, and may affect how the product works in your body. Some common ones include:

• THC:This is the chemical that causes a “high.”
• CBD:This does not get you high and is often used for calming effects.
• Other Cannabinoids: These may include CBG, CBN, and CBC.
  • THCA and CBDA are the “acidic” forms of THC and CBD, again as discussed in a previous post.
  • When cannabis is heated (like when smoked or vaped), these acidic forms change into active forms (THC and CBD) through a process called decarboxylation which we’ve mentioned before (link).

In New York State, the results will usually look like this:

• Flower and vapes show cannabinoid levels in percentages (%).
• Edibles show the amount in milligrams (mg) per serving and per package.

Some COAs also include ratios, such as 1:1 THC:CBD, which help you understand the balance between different effects (for example, relaxing vs. energizing).

REMEMBER:

• The Total THC is calculated using this formula:
  Total THC = (0.877 × THCA) + THC
  Why? Because THCA loses weight when it’s heated, as it releases carbon dioxide (CO₂) and turns into THC. That number, 0.877, is used to adjust for that change and we discussed that in a previous post.
• How cannabinoids are tested matters too:
  • Gas Chromatography (GC) uses heat, which turns acidic forms (like THCA and CBDA) into their neutral forms. This means GC only shows THC and CBD, not their original acidic forms. So, if you see in your COA only these neutral numbers it means that either the lab that performed the test added the acidic and neutral forms together already or that the lab only uses a gas chromatography equipment which is unlikely. As we mentioned in a previous post, GC is mostly used to test for terpenes which are volatile.
  • High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) does not use heat, so it can measure both acidic and neutral forms. Because of this, HPLC is the most common method used for cannabis testing, and it gives a more complete picture of what’s in the product.

If your COA only shows the neutral forms like THC or CBD, it could mean one of two things: either the lab has already combined the acidic and neutral forms into one number through the formula from above which is usually labeled as Total THCor Total CBD, or the lab used gas chromatography, a method that only detects the neutral forms. However, most labs use liquid chromatography, which can show both forms, so it’s uncommon for gas chromatography to be used for cannabinoid testing.

Terpene Profile (if available)

Terpenes are compounds that give cannabis its smell and may also affect how it makes you feel. Common terpenes include:

• Myrcene: Earthy or musky smell.
• Limonene: Citrus smell.
• Pinene: Pine scent.
• Linalool: Floral scent.

Not all labs include terpenes, but if they do, it’s a bonus for understanding your product’s aroma and possible effects.

Contaminant Testing

This part is all about safety. Labs check for:

• Pesticides: Chemicals used in farming, should not be present in high amounts.
• Heavy Metals: Things like lead, mercury, or arsenic that can be toxic.
• Microbial Impurities: Bacteria, mold, or yeast that can make you sick.
• Residual Solvents: Used in making extracts, should be below safe limits.
• Foreign Materials: Anything that shouldn’t be there, like hair, plastic, etc.

Each result should be marked:

• “Pass” = safe to use.
• “Fail” = should NOT be sold.

In New York, all legal products MUST pass these tests before being sold.

Pass vs Fail: At the top of most COAs, there’s an “Overall Status.” A “Pass” means the product meets safety standards. A “Fail” means it may be unsafe to use.

NOTE: Not all labs test for every category. If the COA says “Not Tested” for something like residual solvents, it’s a good idea to ask why—especially if the product is a concentrate, since solvents are often used during extraction.

Moisture Content and Water Activity

These tell you if the cannabis was dried and stored properly.

• Water Activity (Aw): Should be below 0.65 to prevent mold.
• Moisture %: Should usually be between 6–13%.

LOQ and LOD

You’ll often see values like “<LOQ” or “<LOD.” Here’s what they mean:

• LOQ: Limit of Quantification – the smallest amount the lab can measure with accuracy.
• LOD: Limit of Detection – the smallest amount the lab can detect at all.
• “<LOQ” means there’s so little of the substance, it couldn’t be measured.

Batch, Lab, and QR Code

• Check that the lab license number is listed.
• Look for a QR code or web link to verify the results.
• Batch and product names should match your packaging.

Importance of Testing

Testing helps protect your health and makes sure the cannabis product is what it says it is. In legal markets, all products must be tested and properly labeled so you know what you’re getting.

Final Tips for Reading a COA

• Always match the COA to the product label: check name, batch, and THC/CBD values.
• Look for state-certified labs and third-party testing.
• Use the QR code on your product to find the real COA.
• If anything looks off, ask the dispensary or contact the brand.
• Always read the COA before using a cannabis product.
• Check that test results match what’s on the label.
• Ask questions if something seems off and dispensaries should help explain.
• Look for third-party testing rather than for in-house lab results.

By understanding how to read a COA, you become a more confident and informed cannabis consumer. Whether you’re using cannabis for wellness, recreation, or medicine, the COA is your best tool for finding cannabis products that are safe to consume, accurately and honestly labeled, and thoroughly tested for strength, purity, and harmful contaminants. COAs support transparency and help build trust between consumers, producers, and regulators, contributing to a safer and more reliable cannabis industry.

The NYS Office of Cannabis Management (OCM) has a very comprehensive guideline on how to understand a COA: https://cannabis.ny.gov/system/files/documents/2023/04/ocm_howtoreadcoa_final.pdf

Yeast and mold are types of fungi found everywhere— in the air, soil, water, and even on plants. Some fungi are useful, but others can be harmful.

What Are Fungi?

Fungi are living organisms that include molds, yeasts, and mushrooms. They are different from plants because they don’t make their own food. Instead, they absorb nutrients from their surroundings.

• Helpful fungi: Yeast is used to make bread and beer, and certain molds help create cheese and antibiotics like penicillin.
• Harmful fungi: Some molds produce toxins that can make people sick, cause food to spoil, or infect plants and animals.

How Do Yeast and Mold Grow?

• Yeast: Tiny, single-celled fungi that reproduce quickly by forming small buds. Yeast is often used in baking and brewing [1].
• Mold: Made of many tiny cells that grow in long, thread-like structures called hyphae. Molds spread by growing outward, forming fuzzy patches on surfaces. Some molds are harmless, but others can release toxins dangerous to people [1].

Why Is Yeast and Mold Testing Important?

The Total Yeast and Mold Count (TYMC) measures how much yeast and mold are in a cannabis sample. This test is important because:

• Too much yeast and mold can cause health problems – This is especially risky for people with weak immune systems.
• Some molds produce harmful toxins – These can cause allergic reactions or lung infections if inhaled.
• If the count is too high, the cannabis may not be safe – It could be contaminated and unfit for sale or use.

Many regions in North America have strict rules on how much yeast and mold can be in dried cannabis. Limits vary by location, ranging from 1,000 to 100,000 colony-forming units per gram (cfu/g).

Overview of Punja et al. 2023

Punja and collaborators [2] analyzed over 2,000 cannabis samples from a greenhouse between 2019 and 2022 to find out what influences yeast and mold levels. They identified different types of fungi and yeasts using lab tests. The most common genera were:

• Penicillium
• Aspergillus
• Cladosporium
• Fusarium

However, they found in total 21 species of fungi in their samples. Some of these fungi are harmless, but others can produce toxins or lead to infections.

What Increases Yeast and Mold Levels in Cannabis?

The study found that certain factors made mold levels worse:

1. Some Cannabis Strains Are More Prone to Mold

Not all strains are created equal, and some have more risk of mold contamination. For example, strains with dense leaves trapped moisture, making them more likely to develop mold.

In their study, the strains “Watermelon Kush” and “Powdered Donuts” had more mold levels, and the strains “Jack Herer” and “Death Bubba” had lower levels. However, strain names may not mean much and definitely doesn’t tell you about the relationship between strains, but that’s an entire different story!

2. Greenhouse Conditions Contribute to Mold Growth

• Leaf litter on the greenhouse floor provided a breeding ground for fungi.
• Workers moving through crops during harvest spread fungi from plant to plant.
• High temperature and humidity near the buds created perfect conditions for mold.

3. Drying Methods Affect Mold Growth

• Wet trimming and rack drying led to higher mold levels because the buds stayed damp longer.
• Hang-drying whole branches helped reduce mold growth by allowing better air circulation.

What Helps Reduce Yeast and Mold in Cannabis?

Punja and collaborators also give some suggestions that may help prevent mold and yeast growth:

• Choosing strains with fewer leaves – Less moisture gets trapped, lowering the risk of mold.
• Using fans to improve air circulation – Reduces temperature and humidity, making it harder for mold to grow.
• Harvesting in cooler months (November–April) – Lower temperatures mean less mold.
• Hang-drying whole branches instead of wet trimming – Allows buds to dry more evenly.
• Drying buds to 12–14% moisture (water activity of 0.65–0.7) – Keeps mold levels low while preserving quality.

Why Does This Matter for Cannabis Safety?

While some fungi in C. sativa are harmless, others such as Aspergillus ochraceus and Aspergillus niger, can produce toxins that cause serious health risks, but the disease they produce, Aspergillosis, is uncommon in healthy individuals but can affect immunocompromised people [3].

The study also found inconsistencies in how commercial labs test for yeast and mold, suggesting the need for a standardized testing method across the industry.

How Can Cannabis Growers Improve Safety?

By understanding what increases or decreases yeast and mold levels, growers can take steps to produce safer cannabis.

• Selecting mold-resistant strains
• Improving airflow in greenhouses
• Cleaning up plant debris
• Using proper drying techniques
• Storing cannabis at safe moisture levels

Following these best practices can help ensure clean, high-quality cannabis products for consumers.

For NYS, this is a very brief summary of the TYMC according to the OCM: (from this website visited on March 26, 2025 https://cannabis.ny.gov/system/files/documents/2025/03/ocm-testing-limits-final-2-26-25.pdf)

Cannabis products must be tested for Total Yeast and Mold Count (TYMC) to make sure they are safe to use. The TYMC measures how many yeast and mold cells are in a sample, reported as colony-forming units (CFU) per gram (cfu/g) or per milliliter (cfu/mL).

Who Needs to Test for Yeast and Mold?

• All cannabis products must be tested for yeast and mold before they can be sold.
• Labs must report the TYMC results using cfu/g or cfu/mL.

Limits for Medical Cannabis

For medical cannabis, there are strict limits on yeast and mold levels:

• Unextracted cannabis (flower, ground cannabis, etc.): Must have 10,000 cfu/g or less (10⁴ cfu/mL).
• Extracted or infused cannabis (oils, edibles, tinctures, etc.): Must have 1,000 cfu/g or less (10³ cfu/mL).

Limits for Adult-Use (Recreational) Cannabis

For adult-use cannabis, the rules are different:

• Unextracted cannabis (flower, ground cannabis, etc.): There is no official limit. Instead, labs must report the results, and regulators may require extra testing if there are safety concerns.
• Extracted or infused cannabis (oils, edibles, tinctures, etc.): Must have 1,000 cfu/g or less (10³ cfu/mL).

Recent Rule Changes

• In January 2023, New York changed the rule for adult-use cannabis flower. Instead of setting a limit, they now only require labs to report the results.
• Before April 2022, yeast and mold were classified as contaminants, meaning products with high levels were not allowed.

In conclusion, these regulations support overall quality control and are designed to promote product safety, particularly for consumers. TYMC provides a general measure of total yeast and mold in samples, even though it does not differentiate between harmful and harmless fungi. Because of this, more targeted methods such as mycotoxin testing, are also being used to provide additional safety insights.

1. McGinnis, M. and S. Tyring, Introduction to Mycology. In: Baron S, editor. Medical Microbiology. 4th edition. Galveston (TX): University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston;. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8125/

Page visited on March 26, 2025. 1996.

2. Punja, Z.K., et al., Total yeast and mold levels in high THC-containing cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) inflorescences are influenced by genotype, environment, and pre-and post-harvest handling practices. Frontiers in Microbiology, 2023. 14: p. 1192035.

3. Brophy, S., et al., Aspergillus sp. testing in the emerging Cannabis sativa industry in New York State. 2023.

What is terpene analysis?

Terpene analysis involves measuring the amount of terpenes in a sample. This is essential for determining the sensory and therapeutic properties of plants, especially Cannabis sativa. Terpenes, along with the other compounds produced by the plant, may work together to create specific effects in cannabis (the entourage effect), so knowing which compounds are in use is important. This makes terpene testing increasingly popular in labs.

What are terpenes and how are they classified?

Terpenes are organic compounds that contribute to the aroma and flavor of many plants [1], including C. sativa. They also form the basis of essential oils used in food and cosmetics [2], for example. Terpenes may have therapeutic properties, such as anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and pain-relieving effects [3-8]. In C. sativa, terpenes affect both the sensory qualities of the buds and their therapeutic properties. Terpenes are made from combinations of isoprene units, which are molecules with five carbon atoms (C5). Terpene classification depends on the number of carbon atoms: monoterpenes (C10), sesquiterpenes (C15), and diterpenes (C20) [1].

How does terpene analysis help in cannabis quality control?

A high-quality cannabis sample should have a variety of terpenes. If the terpenes’ aroma is missing, the sample might be old or poorly grown.

Terpenes in Cannabis sativa

Cannabis sativa has a wide variety of terpenes. Around 150-200 terpenes have been reported, mostly monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes [2, 9]. Common terpenes in cannabis found in dispensaries in the U.S. include beta-myrcene, limonene, and beta-caryophyllene [10].

Importance of Terpenes in Cannabis sativa

Terpenes play a key role in the smoking experience by providing distinct aromas and potential effects. They interact with cannabinoids, enhancing their effects, and can also work with other terpenes in the plant. This is known as the entourage effect, which increases the therapeutic benefits of cannabis. For example, sativa strains are known for energizing effects and may contain terpenes like limonene and pinene, which have citrusy, fresh smells. Indica strains are associated with relaxing effects and may contain more myrcene, which has an earthy scent.

Methods of Terpene Analysis

The most common method for measuring terpenes is gas chromatography, often combined with mass spectrometry for more accurate results. Other methods include SPME and VASE. Gas chromatography is preferred due to the high volatility of terpenes.

Gas Chromatography: The Most Common Method

Gas chromatography (GC) is widely used for terpene analysis. It involves heating the sample and using an inert gas as the mobile phase to carry the sample through a column, where components are separated at different speeds. These components are detected and analyzed by a computer, and the data is displayed as a chromatogram.

Mass Spectrometry (MS): Finding the Molecular Weight of Cannabinoids

Mass spectrometry (MS) is a technique that separates tiny particles like atoms and molecules by looking at their charge-to-mass ratio. This method is used to measure the weight of particles. It works by analyzing the relationship between a molecule’s mass and its electric charge (m/z) in a sample.

This technique helps determine the exact molecular weight of different substances in a sample. Mass spectrometry can identify unknown compounds by measuring their weight. It is also useful for measuring the amount of known compounds and figuring out the structure of different molecules.

GC-MS Technique: Improving Accuracy in Terpene Testing

A commonly used technique for analyzing terpenes is gas chromatography combined with mass spectrometry (GC-MS).

Gas chromatography (GC) helps separate the different substances in a sample, while mass spectrometry (MS) identifies and measures each component. This combination is highly accurate for detecting both cannabinoids and terpenes. After GC separates the terpenes, MS fragments and analyzes them, providing extra details to confirm their identity. By using GC-MS,  the type and amount of terpenes in a sample can be precisely measured.

Alternatives to Gas Chromatography: HS-SPME and VASE

Other techniques, like headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME), avoid using solvents and are suitable for volatile samples [2]. VASE uses a sorbent exposed to the plant’s flower for extraction, heated at a specific pressure and temperature.

Important Considerations in Terpene Evaluation

Standardizing testing methods and extraction protocols is important. Heating flowers too much before analysis can degrade or evaporate terpenes, altering the results.

Homemade Terpene Extraction

Olive oil is a good solvent for extracting terpenes, as it prevents them from evaporating. To make a terpene-rich cannabis oil, grind the cannabis, mix it with olive oil, and heat the mixture in a water bath.

Mysteries of Terpenes in Cannabis sativa

The reason why C. sativa produces so many terpenes is still not fully understood, but it seems these compounds act as a defense mechanism. Plants grown outdoors may produce more terpenes than those grown indoors, and the expression of terpenes can vary depending on environmental conditions.

I hope this helps with your terpene extractions using olive oil! Let me know how it goes!

1. Micalizzi, G., et al., Cannabis Sativa L.: A comprehensive review on the analytical methodologies for cannabinoids and terpenes characterization. Journal of Chromatography A, 2021. 1637: p. 461864.
2. Bakro, F., et al., Simultaneous determination of terpenes and cannabidiol in hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) by fast gas chromatography with flame ionization detection. Journal of Separation Science, 2020. 43(14): p. 2817-2826.
3. Cox-Georgian, D., et al., Therapeutic and medicinal uses of terpenes, in Medicinal Plants. 2019, Springer. p. 333-359.
4. Kamatou, G.P. and A.M. Viljoen, Linalool–A review of a biologically active compound of commercial importance. Natural product communications, 2008. 3(7): p. 1934578X0800300727.
5. Rogerio, A.P., et al., Preventive and therapeutic anti‐inflammatory properties of the sesquiterpene α‐humulene in experimental airways allergic inflammation. British Journal of Pharmacology, 2009. 158(4): p. 1074-1087.
6. Chaves, J.S., et al., Pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution of the sesquiterpene α-humulene in mice. Planta medica, 2008. 74(14): p. 1678-1683.
7. dos Santos, É.R., et al., Linalool as a Therapeutic and Medicinal Tool in Depression Treatment: A Review. Current Neuropharmacology, 2022. 20(6): p. 1073-1092.
8. Salehi, B., et al., Therapeutic potential of α-and β-pinene: A miracle gift of nature. Biomolecules, 2019. 9(11): p. 738.
9. Radwan, M.M., et al., Cannabinoids, phenolics, terpenes and alkaloids of cannabis. Molecules, 2021. 26(9): p. 2774.
10. Smith, C.J., et al., The phytochemical diversity of commercial cannabis in the United States. PLoS one, 2022. 17(5): p. e0267498.

Walk into any licensed cannabis dispensary in New York, and you’ll feel it: the buzz of customers exploring new products, the scent of terpenes in the air, the sleek displays of flower, vapes, edibles, and more. But behind all that shine is a whole system built on something way less glamorous: compliance.
If you’re a budtender, you’re not just helping someone pick out a pre-roll. You’re the final stop before cannabis reaches the hands of a consumer. That means you’re also one of the most important players in making sure New York’s adult-use cannabis program runs smoothly, safely, and legally.
Let’s break down what compliance looks like in the day-to-day of a retail shop — from the obvious to the overlooked — and why it matters so much.

Front Door: First Line of Defense

One of the most visible aspects of compliance happens right at the door. When a customer walks in, security (or sometimes you) will need to verify their age before they’re allowed to browse products. That means checking IDs thoroughly, refusing service to underage patrons, and ensuring your customers meet the 21+ requirement.

Eyes on Everything: Surveillance & Secure Storage

Every inch of a dispensary is covered by security cameras. It’s not just for theft prevention. Those cameras monitor every movement of product, staff, and customers. You and your colleagues will be on camera while working, so always stay sharp and follow proper procedure.

POS Systems and Track & Trace

Each time you scan a product, you’re contributing to the seed-to-sale tracking system. New York uses BioTrack to monitor cannabis from cultivation to consumer. This means your Point-of-Sale (POS) system is much more than just a register, it logs everything from THC levels to sales details, providing transparency and traceability for both regulators and consumers.

Product Intake:The Final Compliance Check

Here’s something not every new budtender realizes: you — or your inventory lead — are often the last hands to touch a product before a customer does. That comes with real responsibility.
When product is delivered from a cultivator or distributor, you must verify:

• Packaging is sealed and untampered
• Product labels are accurate and easy to read
• THC percentage is clearly listed
• Lab results are included
• The brand, batch number, warnings, and license info are all present (as required by NYS Packaging, Labeling, Marketing & Advertising regulations)

If anything’s missing, wrong, or looks sketchy? You don’t stock it. Period. That product gets flagged, and your manager or compliance officer handles it. You’re not just stocking shelves — you’re helping protect consumers and the dispensary license.

Budtenders Are the Last Line of the Supply Chain

From seed to sale, cannabis passes through a lot of hands: cultivators, processors, transporters, and retailers. But only one group actually hands the product to the customer — you.
This means the quality of the entire industry rests in your hands. The customer experience. The safety of the product. The public’s trust in the legal market.

Want to learn more about working in retail? Check out our FREE Budtender Field Guide!

Terpenes are natural compounds that give plants their smell, including cannabis. Recently, people have become more interested in their possible health benefits. Terpenes don’t just affect how cannabis smells; they might also change how it makes you feel.

This post will introduce you to the fascinating world of terpenes.

Cannabis sativa and Its Many Compounds

One special thing about Cannabis sativa is that it produces many different compounds. These can be divided into two main groups:

• Primary compounds: These are essential for the plant to grow and survive, like fibers that give it structure or sugars that provide energy.
• Secondary compounds: These are not necessary for survival but can help protect the plant [1, 2]. Terpenes belong to this group.

What Do Terpenes Do?

The C. sativa plant makes many compounds, and some of these are called terpenes, which are responsible for the smell [3, 4]. There are many terpenes, but in marijuana-type C. sativa, three terpenes are very common: beta-myrcene, beta-caryophyllene, and limonene [5].

What Other Compounds Does Cannabis Produce?

Besides terpenes, cannabis also produces cannabinoids and we talked about these in a previous post (link). These compounds interact with the body’s endocannabinoid system. While some other plants also produce cannabinoids [6, 7], they are not the same as the ones in cannabis[8].

What Are Cannabis Terpenes?

Terpenes are organic compounds made from five-carbon molecules called isoprene. There are over 30,000 types of terpenes in nature [9-11]. In plants, they can:

• Attract pollinators
• Help spread seeds
• Protect against insects and competing plants

Types of Terpenes

Terpenes are classified by the number of carbon atoms they have [12]:

• Monoterpenes (10 carbons) – Example: limonene and beta-myrcene
• Sesquiterpenes (15 carbons) – Example: beta-caryophyllene
• Diterpenes (20 carbons)

Terpenes Are Found in Many Unrelated Plants

One of the most fascinating things about terpenes in C. sativa is that they are also found in many other plants, both closely and distantly related. For example, hops—the main ingredient in beer and the closest living relative of C. sativa—also produce alpha-humulene. These two plants share a common ancestor from about 25-28 million years ago [13]. However, pines, which produce alpha- and beta-pinene, share an ancestor with C. sativa from around 250 million years ago! Even though pines and C. sativa are only distantly related, they still produce some of the same compounds. And once again, what makes C. sativa so remarkable is that it produces all these terpenes—and more!

Terpenes in Marijuana… and Other Plants!

You might be surprised to learn that many plants share the same terpenes as cannabis:

• Beta-myrcene – Found in mangoes
• Beta-caryophyllene – Found in black pepper
• Limonene – Found in lemons
• Alpha and beta-pinene – Found in pine trees
• Linalool – Found in lavender
• Alpha-humulene – Found in hops

Cannabis Terpenes: A Wide Variety of Compounds

One of the most interesting things about C. sativa is that it produces a wide range of terpenes. Different strains have different amounts and types of terpenes [5], which may affect their smell and possibly their effects .

Can Terpenes Help Classify Cannabis Strains?

The terpenes in cannabis are responsible for the scents of different strains, like Lemon Skunk or Super Lemon Haze, and may be useful to group strains [5, 14-17]. Some suggest that terpenes may be a better way to group cannabis strains than the usual labels like “sativa” or “indica” [5].

How Are Cannabinoids and Terpenes Measured?

To analyze cannabis, scientists use chromatography, a technique that separates compounds and you can read more about it in our previous post (link):

• Gas Chromatography (GC) – Measures terpenes but changes the structure of cannabinoids.
• High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) – Measures both acidic and neutral forms of cannabinoids without altering them.

Similarities Between Terpenes and Cannabinoids

At one point during their production, terpenes and cannabinoids come from the same chemical pathway and start with the same basic compounds (precursor molecules). Some suggest that terpene and cannabinoid genes work together in a network [18], influencing the final chemical makeup of the plant. Some terpenes may even interact with the endocannabinoid system [19, 20], just like cannabinoids do.

This growing knowledge of terpenes suggests that they might play a bigger role in cannabis effects than we once thought—making them just as important as cannabinoids in therapeutic use.

Possible Therapeutic Uses of Terpenes

Many terpenes may have health benefits, including anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antiseptic, astringent, and digestive properties [11]. For example, humulene appears to have anti-inflammatory and pain-relieving effects [21, 22]. Linalool also seems to have anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties [23], and it may even help with depression [24]. This is one of the reasons why linalool is commonly used in yoga classes. When we clean our homes, we often use products containing alpha- and beta-pinene because of their antimicrobial properties [25].

Questions About Terpenes

One big question I have about terpenes is why Cannabis sativa produces so many of these compounds. In other words, what is their ecological purpose? Some scientists believe that the plant makes terpenes to protect itself from UV radiation, while others think they help defend against herbivores [26, 27].

A recent preliminary study found that when cannabis is grown outdoors, it produces a greater amount of terpenes [28]. This might be because outdoor plants face more challenges like temperature changes, sunlight exposure, hail, diseases, and insects. Since outdoor plants must defend themselves from these threats, it makes sense that they might produce more terpenes compared to indoor plants, which grow in stable conditions with controlled light, nutrients, and temperature.

These are just some of the questions that could be answered through experiments. I hope you enjoyed this short overview of cannabis terpenes!

1.             Demain, A.L. and A. Fang, The natural functions of secondary metabolites. History of modern biotechnology I, 2000: p. 1-39.

2.             Vining, L.C., Functions of secondary metabolites. Annual review of microbiology, 1990. 44(1): p. 395-427.

3.             Booth, J.K. and J. Bohlmann, Terpenes in Cannabis sativa–From plant genome to humans. Plant Science, 2019. 284: p. 67-72.

4.             Gershenzon, J. and N. Dudareva, The function of terpene natural products in the natural world. Nature chemical biology, 2007. 3(7): p. 408-414.

5.             Smith, C.J., et al., The Phytochemical Diversity of Commercial Cannabis in the United States. bioRxiv, 2021.

6.             Bauer, R., K. Woelkart, and O.M. Salo-Ahen, CB receptor ligands from plants. Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry, 2008. 8(3): p. 173-186.

7.             Gertsch, J., R.G. Pertwee, and V. Di Marzo, Phytocannabinoids beyond the Cannabis plant–do they exist? British journal of pharmacology, 2010. 160(3): p. 523-529.

8.             van Velzen, R. and M.E. Schranz, Origin and evolution of the cannabinoid oxidocyclase gene family. bioRxiv, 2020.

9.             Aizpurua-Olaizola, O., et al., Evolution of the cannabinoid and terpene content during the growth of Cannabis sativa plants from different chemotypes. Journal of natural products, 2016. 79(2): p. 324-331.

10.          Chen, F., et al., The family of terpene synthases in plants: a mid‐size family of genes for specialized metabolism that is highly diversified throughout the kingdom. The Plant Journal, 2011. 66(1): p. 212-229.

11.          Cox-Georgian, D., et al., Therapeutic and medicinal uses of terpenes, in Medicinal Plants. 2019, Springer. p. 333-359.

12.          Davis, E.M. and R. Croteau, Cyclization enzymes in the biosynthesis of monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and diterpenes. Biosynthesis, 2000: p. 53-95.

13.          Richter, G., et al., Cannabis sativa: an overview. Nutraceuticals, 2021: p. 603-624.

14.          Henry, P., et al., Predicting chemovar cluster and variety verification in vegetative cannabis accessions using targeted single nucleotide polymorphisms. PeerJ Preprints, 2018. 6: p. e27442v1.

15.          Orser, C., et al., Terpenoid Chemoprofiles Distinguish Drug-type Cannabis sativa L. Cultivars in Nevada. Natural Products Chemistry and Research, 2017. 6(1).

16.          Reimann-Philipp, U., et al., Cannabis Chemovar Nomenclature Misrepresents Chemical and Genetic Diversity; Survey of Variations in Chemical Profiles and Genetic Markers in Nevada Medical Cannabis Samples. Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research, 2019.

17.          Watts, S., et al., Cannabis labelling is associated with genetic variation in terpene synthase genes. Nature plants, 2021. 7(10): p. 1330-1334.

18.          Zager, J.J., et al., Gene networks underlying cannabinoid and terpenoid accumulation in cannabis. Plant physiology, 2019. 180(4): p. 1877-1897.

19.          Ferber, S.G., et al., The “entourage effect”: terpenes coupled with cannabinoids for the treatment of mood disorders and anxiety disorders. Current neuropharmacology, 2020. 18(2): p. 87-96.

20.          LaVigne, J., R. Hecksel, and J.M. Streicher, In Defense of the “Entourage Effect”: Terpenes Found in Cannabis sativa Activate the Cannabinoid Receptor 1 In Vivo. The FASEB Journal, 2020. 34(S1): p. 1-1.

21.          Rogerio, A.P., et al., Preventive and therapeutic anti‐inflammatory properties of the sesquiterpene α‐humulene in experimental airways allergic inflammation. British Journal of Pharmacology, 2009. 158(4): p. 1074-1087.

22.          Chaves, J.S., et al., Pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution of the sesquiterpene α-humulene in mice. Planta medica, 2008. 74(14): p. 1678-1683.

23.          Kamatou, G.P. and A.M. Viljoen, Linalool–A review of a biologically active compound of commercial importance. Natural product communications, 2008. 3(7): p. 1934578X0800300727.

24.          dos Santos, É.R., et al., Linalool as a Therapeutic and Medicinal Tool in Depression Treatment: A Review. Current Neuropharmacology, 2022. 20(6): p. 1073-1092.

25.          Salehi, B., et al., Therapeutic potential of α-and β-pinene: A miracle gift of nature. Biomolecules, 2019. 9(11): p. 738.

26.          Vergara, D., et al., Genetic and Genomic Tools for Cannabis sativa. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 2016. 35(5-6): p. 364-377.

27.          Kovalchuk, I., et al., The Genomics of Cannabis and Its Close Relatives. Annual Review of Plant Biology, 2020. 71.

28.          Zandkarimi, F., et al., Comparison of the Cannabinoid and Terpene Profiles in Commercial Cannabis from Natural and Artificial Cultivation. Molecules, 2023. 28(2): p. 833.

Have you ever wondered how we figure out the levels of CBD, THC, and other cannabinoids in cannabis products? In this post, we’ll explain the science behind the methods used to measure cannabinoids, like chromatography and mass spectrometry, and how these techniques help analyze cannabis components.

Why Is Cannabinoid Testing Important?

Cannabinoid analysis is used for many reasons, including medical research and legal regulations. The main goal is to determine the potency and quality of cannabis products, but it also helps classify a sample as “hemp” or “marijuana” based on its THC content. This is useful for both consumers and professionals in the cannabis industry.

What Are Cannabinoids, and How Are They Made in the Plant?

Cannabinoids are chemical compounds found mainly in the Cannabis sativa plant. They are produced in tiny glandular structures called trichomes, which are most abundant in the flowers of female cannabis plants—what we commonly call buds.

Did you know that cannabinoids are first made in an acidic form? Their names end with an “A” (like THCA and CBDA). These acidic cannabinoids must be heated to become their well-known active forms, THC and CBD. This heating process, called decarboxylation, removes carbon dioxide (CO₂) and transforms the cannabinoids into their neutral, active state. You can read more about this in our previous post (link)

But how do we measure these cannabinoids in their acidic and neutral forms? Many different techniques are used, and we’ll explain some of the most common ones below.

What Is Chromatography?

One of the most common ways to measure cannabinoids is chromatography. This lab technique separates the different compounds in a cannabis sample so they can be identified and measured.

Think of chromatography like a race. The track is the stationary phase, which stays in place, while the runners represent the mobile phase, moving through the track. Cannabinoids behave like runners, moving at different speeds depending on their properties. Some stick to the track longer, while others move ahead quickly, allowing scientists to separate and identify them.

How Does Chromatography Work?

1. Sample Preparation: First,  a mixture containing the cannabis sample must be made. This could be flower, CBD oil, edibles, or any other cannabis product. The cannabinoids (also called analytes) are the compounds that will be separated and measured.
2. Injection: The sample is pushed through a tube or column that contains a solid or semi-solid material (the stationary phase).
3. Separation: Different compounds in the sample move at different speeds depending on their size, chemical properties, and how much they stick to the stationary phase.
4. Detection: As the separated compounds leave the column, a detector measures how much of each compound is present. This is often done by seeing how much ultraviolet (UV) light they absorb.
5. Data Analysis: The data is processed into a graph called a chromatogram, which helps scientists determine which cannabinoids are present and in what amounts.

Gas Chromatography (GC): Testing for Neutral Cannabinoids

How does gas chromatography (GC) work?

Gas chromatography (GC) uses gas to carry the sample through a thin tube (a capillary column). This method requires heating the sample to ensure it flows properly.

Because gas chromatography requires heat, it automatically decarboxylates acidic cannabinoids, turning them into their neutral forms. That means GC can only measure THC, CBD, and other neutral cannabinoids—not their acidic versions. This is one downside of using GC for cannabis testing.

High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC): Measuring Both Acidic and Neutral Cannabinoids

Unlike gas chromatography, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) doesn’t use heat. Instead, it relies on a liquid solvent under high pressure to move the sample through a column. Since it doesn’t require heating, HPLC can measure cannabinoids in both their acidic (THCA, CBDA) and neutral (THC, CBD) forms.

Because it measures both acidic and neutral cannabinoids, HPLC is may be a better option to analyze cannabinoids. It provides complete and accurate results, making it very common in the industry.

Understanding Cannabinoid Test Results

After running a cannabinoid analysis, the result graph is called a chromatogram.

What does a chromatogram show?

The following figure shows the results of a cannabinoid analysis using High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). This type of graph is called a chromatogram, and it helps scientists separate and measure different compounds in a sample.

• X-Axis (horizontal): Represents time (in minutes). Each compound, or cannabinoid, takes a different amount of time to pass through the system, which helps identify them.
• Y-Axis (vertical): Represents signal intensity, measured in milli-Absorbance Units (mAU). This tells us how much of a cannabinoid is present. The higher the peak, the more of that cannabinoid is in the sample.

Each cannabinoid has a unique retention time, meaning it appears at a specific point on the X-axis. These times are compared to known standards to identify each compound. The Y-axis measures how much light each cannabinoid absorbs, which helps determine its quantity.

By looking at the chromatogram, we can see which cannabinoids are present in the sample and how much of each is there. This method is essential for testing cannabis potency and quality.

Figure 1. This graph is a chromatogram, which shows the results of a chromatography test used to separate and identify different compounds in a sample. The X-axis (horizontal) represents time in minutes, showing when each compound reached the detector. The Y-axis (vertical) represents the intensity of the signal, which indicates how much of each compound is present. The numbered peaks represent different substances in the sample, with larger peaks meaning a higher concentration. Similar chromatograms result when cannabinoids are measured.

How do we know which cannabinoids are in a sample?

Each cannabinoid has a unique retention time, meaning it appears on the chromatogram at a specific point. By comparing the peaks on the graph to known standards, scientists can identify and quantify the cannabinoids in the sample.

Cannabinoid testing is essential for ensuring the quality, potency, and legal classification of cannabis products. Chromatography, especially HPLC, is the best method for analyzing both acidic and neutral cannabinoids, giving a full picture of a cannabis sample’s composition.

Next time you see a label showing the THC or CBD content of a product, you’ll know the science behind it!

Mandatory Training Requirements

Under Adult-Use Cannabis Regulations (§125.5), all employees must complete the following four training components within 30 days of starting work:

• Cannabis Product Safety and Responsibility – Developed by OCM, this course covers health and safety best practices in the regulated cannabis industry.
• Cannabis Workforce Responsibility – Created by the New York State Department of Labor (NYSDOL), this course focuses on labor standards and workplace health and safety.
• Implicit Bias Training – Employers must provide implicit bias training to help employees recognize and mitigate bias in the workplace.
• Job-Specific Training – Employers must also provide at least two hours of training specific to the licensed activity their employees will perform.

For more information visit: https://cannabis.ny.gov/workforce

IMPORTANT: Training Must Be Paid and Conducted During Work Hours!

Employers generally must pay employees for time spent in mandatory training that is directly related to their job and occurs during regular work hours, as mandated by the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA). OCM regulations require that all Responsible Workforce Training courses be completed during employees’ regular work hours and that employees receive their usual rate of pay while completing any required training.

The Cannabis Workforce Initiative (CWI) has developed a free Implicit Bias course and Job-Specific Trainings for employees in different parts of the industry. These new courses satisfy the requirements for new hires not provided by OCM, at no cost to employers. 

Visit our Responsible Workforce Training Course Page to get learn more and get started!

*These resources are intended for general informational purposes only and should not be considered legal advice.